With the possible exception of “The Dream of the Rood,” the first extant English literature text is the exciting epic poem, Beowulf. It was written in Old English, so it is not readable by most of us in its original form. Unlike the Homeric epics, Beowulf incorporates a Christian worldview. Wonderful translations of the text have been produced and it is challenging to choose which one to study. The J. R. R. Tolkien version flows well, making it a good choice for the uninitiated. But other translations are also excellent, including Heaney’s, and each has its strong points.
The narrator of the story is a “bard.” Traditionally, a bard had the daunting vocation of memorizing texts passed down from previous bards (which often contained historical content) and then presenting these in song to audiences throughout the land. Usually a bard had a small harp or lyre which he played as he told and sang the great epic tales.
Set around the year A.D. 500 but written a few centuries later, the story of Beowulf is by an unknown British author. It takes place in two Nordic countries, though: roughly, today’s Denmark and Sweden. Like classical epic poetry, Beowulf does not rely upon rhyme. Instead, alliteration, repetition, litotes (a form of understatement) and the kenning are significant devices which are incorporated in the meter of this fascinating work.
The kenning is a device specific to Anglo-Saxon texts. It functions in a manner similar to the descriptive epithets of Homer’s stories because it closely associates descriptive words with the main characters and quickly gives the reader the sense of the character or setting, while also imparting a feeling of poetic sensibility. For instance, two kennings which refer to Beowulf himself are “the mighty protector of men” and “land-prince.” Uniquely, the kenning is a noun phrase that speaks directly to the life of the Anglo-Saxon. As portrayed in the text, it is a straightforward, simple life, and as such, while often brutal, an honest and honorable life. There is no subterfuge or “game-playing” for the Geats and Danes of the story. Instead, they address their problems and conflicts directly. This is the refreshing and appealing atmosphere of the Beowulf epic. We know where we stand.
An interesting instance of a kenning in the text is the “whale-road,” which is a name for the ocean because the majestic whales follow specific routes as they travel seasonally. The word “road” is an expansive image which gives a sense of the rhythm of life in the sea, but it also implies that man, too, conducts himself here and depends upon the sea for his livelihood. The ocean is not just an unknown, vague arena, but rather, a defined space where creatures live their God-created lives. The description even implies that we humans carry on our own lives in a similar, patterned manner as that of the animals. There is a rhythm: a sense of dignified continuity established by God. The sea is a place of goodness and blessing, a rich part of the blessed tapestry of creation. As Psalm 107 says in verses 23-26, “They that go down to the sea in ships, that do business in great waters; These see the works of the LORD, and his wonders in the deep.”
Scholars argue as to whether the poem and its author are pagan or Christian. Some posit the theory that a learned monk must have added to the poem and edited it, overlaying a Christian point of view. I think the poem reflects that it was written during a transition time in Britain, when Christianity was becoming the dominant worldview. The celebration of Beowulf’s personal strength, brave acts, and his desire for personal glory are akin to the values of Homer’s epic heroes, but Beowulf’s focus does not stop there. Rather, the story underpins these facets with the deeper belief that the Christian God teaches us to be merciful and humble. Beowulf himself exhibits humility in some of his responses to praise during the celebration feasts. While he brags about his ancestry and his personal skills before setting out on his adventures, this boasting is akin to that of the ancient heroes’ reassuring their listeners that they are capable of the task they are about to perform. Notably, though, when celebrating his successes, Beowulf consistently gives the praise and glory to God, not himself: a striking evidence that that the poem is Christian, not pagan, in its intent.
There are (of course!) three major tests Beowulf must go through. The first two are clearly for the good of the entire community. However, the third, 50 years later, when he fights the dragon in order to take the gold hoard – not so much. Backstory: a man had stolen a cup from the hoard, which the dragon has guarded for many years, and the dragon retaliates by attacking the nearby town. Beowulf’s actions in fighting the dragon, then, are suspect. While he does conquer the dragon, he receives a mortal wound and soon dies. He has lived a brave and heroic life, but he is not perfect. This is another Christian aspect of the story: Beowulf is a flawed human being who in the throes of death continues to turn to the mercy of God. We, the readers, see the dependence he has had on God, not through any personal perfection he exhibits, but through his dedication to serving God and the communities he has been called to. A man may follow his destiny to greatness, but in the worldview of Christianized Britain, this meant serving and sacrificing with a humble heart.
Like all great literature, Beowulf has “levels” of meaning, and a reader who wants to read a rollicking tale will enjoy the poem just as much as a more literarily inclined reader who wishes to explore the deep themes of the poem.
